§ 1.  Generally.
§ 2.  Proof of Paternity.
§ 3.  Identification in Criminal Cases.
§ 3(a).  Generally.
§ 3(b).  The Privilege Against Self-Incrimination.
Bibliography

See also: BLOOD; DNA; GENETIC TESTING; INTOXICATION; PATERNITY

§ 1.  Generally.

HLA testing is performed on white blood cells (or leukocytes).  A technician dyes a sample of leukocytes and examines them for the presence of certain antigen markers to determine the phenotype (the observable inherited characteristic) of the person.  From this, the genotype (the collection od antigens inheritted from each parent) may be determined.  This form of testing is more informative than tradition blood tests because the antigen markers are highly polymorphic.  As a result, HLA tesing can conclusively establish nonpaternity in many cases where blood tests have failed to do so.{footnote}Pravatchai W. Boonlayangoor, True Paternity or Exclusion: Analysis in the Case of a Deceased Person, 34 J. Forensic Sci. 703, 705 (1989); Paul I. Terasaki, Resolution by HLA Testing of 1000 Paternity Cases Not Excluded by ABO Testing, J. of Family Law 543 (1977-78).{/footnote}

§ 2.  Proof of Paternity.

The results of HLA tests have been held admissible to prove paternity,{footnote}Nordgren v. Mitchell, 716 F.2d 1335 (10th Cir. 1983) (applying Utah law); Handley v. Schweiker, 697 F2d 999 (11th Cir. 1983) (applying Alabama law); Balfour v. Balfour, 413 So. 2d 1167 (Ala. App. 1982); State ex rel. Munoz v. Bravo, 678 P2d 974 (Ariz. App. 1984);County of Sonoma v. Grant W., 187 Cal. App. 3d 1439, 1445, 232 Cal. Rptr. 471 (1986); Cramer v. Morrison, 88 Cal. App. 3d 873, 153 Cal. Rptr. 865 (1979); Miller v. Kirshner, 621 A.2d 1326 (Conn. 1993); Blake v. Division of Child Support Enforcement, 525 A2d 154 (Del. Sup. 1987); Carlyon v. Weeks, 387 So. 2d 465 (Fla. App. 1980); Joyner v. Hair, 485 So. 2d 491 (Fla. App. 1986); Crain v. Crain, 662 P.2d 538 (Idaho 1983); People v. Alzoubi, 133 Ill. App. 3d 806, 809 (1985); Hartman v. Stassis, 504 N.W.2d 129 (Iowa App. 1993), cert. denied, __U.S.__; State ex rel. Hausner v. Blackman, 662 P.2d 1183 (Kan. 1983); O’Bannon v. Azar, 435 So. 2d 1144 (La. App. 1983), cert. denied, 441 So 2d 749, and cert. denied, __U.S.__;  Commonwealth v. Beausoleil, 490 N.E.2d 788 (Mass. 1986); Atkinson v. Atkinson, 408 N.W.2d 516 (Mich. App. 1987), app. denied, 429 Mich 883; State v. Hagen, 382 N.W.2d 556 (Minn. App. 1986); Ivy v. Harrington, 644 So. 2d 1218 (Miss. 1994); Chisolm v. Eakes, 573 So. 2d 764 (Miss. 1990); Imms v. Clarke, 654 S.W.2d 281 (Mo. App. 1983); H. v. H., 426 A.2d 1073 (N.J. Super. 1980); Essex County Div. of Welfare v. Harris, 460 A.2d 713 (N.J. Super. 1983); State ex rel. Human Services Dept. v. Coleman, 723 P.2d 971 (N.M. 1986); Ettore I. v. Angela D., 129 Misc. 2d 301, 492 N.Y.S.2d 1013 (1985), rev’d on other gnds, dismd, 127 App. Div. 2d 6, 513 N.Y.S.2d 733; Re Baby Girl S., 140 Misc. 2d 299, 532 N.Y.S.2d 634 (1988); Bertie‑Hertford Child Support Enforcement Agency ex rel. Souza v. Barnes, 342 S.E.2d 579 (N.C. App. 1986);  Turek v. Hardy, 458 A.2d 562 (Pa. 1983); Stahli v. Wittman, 603 A.2d 583 (Pa. Super. 1992); South Carolina Dept. of Social Services v. Bacot, 313 SE2d 45 (S.C. App. 1984); Re E.G.M., 647 S.W.2d 74 (Tex. App. 1983); Kofford v. Flora, 744 P.2d 1343 (Utah 1987); Commonwealth ex rel. Evans v. Harrison, 360 S.E.2d 212 (Va. App. 1987); Re Paternity of M.A.V., 439 N.W.2d 829 (Wis. App. 1989).{/footnote} but not conclusive.{footnote}Stahli v. Wittman, 603 A.2d 583, 585 (Pa. Super. 1992).{/footnote}  Some states have enacted statutes making HLA test results admissible to prove paternity.{footnote}Ala. Code § 26-17-12 (1996); D.C. Code § 16-2343 (1996); Fla. Stat. § 742.12 (1996); Ga. Code ann. ‘ Off. Code Geo. Ann. § 19-7-46 (1996); Ind. Code Ann. § 31‑6‑6.1‑8 (Burns 1980); Mich. Stat. Ann. § 25.496 (1996); Rev. Stat. Mo. § 210.817 (Uniform Parentage Act);  Mont. Code Ann. § 40-5-201 (1995); Mont. Code Ann. ’40-6-102 (Uniform Parentage Act); N.Y. CLS Family Ct. Act § 418 (1996); Or. Rev. Stat. § 109.51 (1995) (Uniform Act on Blood Tests to Determine Paternity); R.I. Gen. Laws § 15-8-11 (1996); S.C. Code Ann. § 20-7-954 (1996).
People In Interest of J.M.A., 803 P.2d 187 (Colo. 1990) (applying statute); Moore v. McNamara, 513 A.2d 660 (Conn. 1986); District of Columbia ex rel. W.J.D. v. E. McB., 557 A.2d 941 (D.C. App. 1989); Raines v. White, 284 S.E.2d 7 (Ga. 1981);  Britten v. State, 328 S.E.2d 556 (Ga. App. 1985); Baker v. Wagers, 472 N.E.2d 218 (Ind. App. 1984) (applying statute); State ex rel. Buechler v. Vinsand, 318 N.W.2d 208 (Iowa 1982); Re Marriage of O’Brien,  772 P.2d 278 (Kan. App. 1989), affd in part and revd in part on other gnds, 783 P.2d 331;  Perry v. Commonwealth 652 S.W.2d 655 (Ky. 1983); Shaw v. Seward, 689 S.W.2d 37 (Ky. App. 1985); State v. Thompson, 503 A.2d 689 (Me. 1986); Willerick v Hanshalli, 356 N.W.2d 36 (Mich. App. 1984); State ex rel. Division of Family Services v. Guffey, 795 S.W.2d 546 (Mo. App. 1990); State ex rel. Cooper v. Harmon, 512 N.W.2d 656 (Neb. App. 1994); S.S. v. E.S., 578 A.2d 381 (N.J. Super. 1990); Tamara B. v. Pete F., 146 App Div. 2d 487, 536 N.Y.S.2d 767 (1989), amd. on other gnds, 551 N.Y.S.2d 781; Re Ivette D., 118 Misc. 2d 434, 460 NYS2d 718 (1983); Owens v. Bell, 451 N.E.2d 241 (Ohio 1983) (applying statute); Callison v Callison, 687 P.2d 106 (Okla. 1984); N.P.A. v. W.B.A., 380 S.E.2d 178 (Va. App. 1988); Mildred L.M. v. John O.F., 452 SE.2d 436 (W. Va. 1994); Re Paternity of M.A.V., 439 N.W.2d 829 (Wis. App. 1989).
See also Mass. Ann. Laws ch. 209C, § 17 (1996) ("blood grouping or genetic marker tests" admissible)
But see Conn. Stat. § 46b-168 (court only authorized to order DNA tests).{/footnote}  Other courts have held that HLA test results may only be offered to prove non-paternity.{footnote}Story v Hodges (1981) 272 Ark 365, 614 SW2d 506;  Varney v Young (1981) 106 Mich App 545, 308 NW2d 276; Cardenas v Chavez (1980) 103 Mich App 646, 303 NW2d 3; B. v F. (1979, App) 92 Wis 2d 696, 285 NW2d 880
CHECK County of El Dorado v Misura (1995, 3rd Dist) 33 Cal App 4th 73, 38 Cal Rptr 2d 908, 95 CDOS 1969, 95 Daily Journal DAR 3359, mod, reh den (3rd Dist) 34 Cal App 4th 199a, 95 CDOS 2672, 95 Daily Journal DAR 4611; Happel v Mecklenburger (1981) 101 Ill App 3d 107, 56 Ill Dec 569, 427 NE2d 974.{/footnote}

Pennsylvania, by statute, provides that genetic test results are prima facie evidence of paternity,{footnote}23 Pa.C.S. § 4343(c)(2).{/footnote} but this statute has been held inapplicable to HLA testing.{footnote}Stahli v. Wittman, 603 A.2d 583, 585 (Pa. Super. 1992).{/footnote}  Thus, the trier of fact is entitled to disregard the results of HLA tests, even where they show a 99.99% probability that the defendant is the father.{footnote}Stahli v. Wittman, 603 A.2d 583, 585 (Pa. Super. 1992).{/footnote}

Chain of Custody.

It has been held that HLA test result may be admitted into evidence without the testimony of the person who received and anyalyzed the samples and made the record of the tests.{footnote}County of Sonoma v. Grant W., 187 Cal. App. 3d 1439, 1449-1450, 232 Cal. Rptr. 471 (1986); {/footnote}

Bibliography.

Annot., Admissibility, Weight and Sufficiency of Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) Tissue Typing Tests in Paternity Cases, 37 A.L.R.4th 167 (1985).
Sterlek & Jacobson, Paternity Testing with the Human Leukocyte Antigen System: A Medicolegal Breakthrough, 20 Santa Clara L. Rev. 511 (1980).
Mary F. Forrest, The Legal Implications of HLA Testing for Paternity, J. of Family Law 537 (1977-78).
Paul I. Terasaki, Resolution by HLA Testing of 1000 Paternity Cases Not Excluded by ABO Testing, J. of Family Law 543 (1977-78).